Research Methodology

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Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 PART I The Fundamentals CHAPTER 1 The Nature and Tools of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 PART II Focusing Your Research Efforts CHAPTER 2 The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process . . . . . . . 45 CHAPTER 3 Review of the Related Literature. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 CHAPTER 4 Planning Your Research Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 CHAPTER 5 Writing the Research Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 PART III Quantitative Research CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 8 Descriptive Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 Analyzing Quantitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 PART IV Qualitative Research CHAPTER 9 CHAPTER 10 CHAPTER 11 Qualitative Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 Historical Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 Analyzing Qualitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 PART V Mixed-Methods Research CHAPTER 12 Mixed-Methods Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 PART VI Research Reports CHAPTER 13 Planning and Preparing a Final Research Report . . . . . 347 Appendices Appendix A Using a Spreadsheet: Microsoft Excel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .372 Appendix B Using SPSS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .379 Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .391 Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .396 7 Contents Preface 3 Acknowledgments 6 PART I The Fundamentals USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY Chapter 1 The Nature and Tools of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 What Research Is Not 19 What Research Is 20 Philosophical Assumptions Underlying Research Methodologies Tools of Research 26 The Library and Its Resources 27 Computer Technology 27 Measurement 27 Statistics 29 Language 29 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Communicating Effectively Through Writing 31 GUIDELINES: Writing to Communicate 32 GUIDELINES: Using the Tools in Word Processing Software The Human Mind 35 Critical Thinking 35 Deductive Logic 36 Inductive Reasoning 37 Scientific Method 38 Theory Building 39 Collaboration with Other Minds 40 Reflections on Noteworthy Research 40 Exploring Research in Your Field 42 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying Important Tools in Your Discipline 42 CHECKLIST: Interviewing an Expert Researcher 43 For Further Reading 43 25 33 8 Contents 9 PART II Focusing Your Research Efforts Chapter 2 The Problem: The Heart of the Research Process. . . . . . . . . 45 USING TECHNOLOGY Finding Research Projects 45 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying and Describing the Research Problem 47 GUIDELINES: Choosing an Appropriate Problem 47 GUIDELINES: Stating the Research Problem 49 CHECKLIST: Evaluating the Research Problem Dividing the Research Problem into Subproblems 53 54 Subproblems Versus Pseudo-Subproblems 54 Characteristics of Subproblems 55 Identifying Subproblems 55 Taking a Paper-and-Pencil Approach 55 Using Brainstorming (Mind Mapping) Software 57 Every Problem Needs Further Delineation 57 Stating Hypotheses 57 Distinguishing Between Research Hypotheses and Null Hypotheses in Quantitative Research 58 Identifying the Variables Under Investigation 58 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Independent, Dependent, Mediating, and Moderating Variables 60 Defining Terms 61 Stating Assumptions 62 Identifying Delimitations and Limitations 62 Importance of the Study 63 Writing the First Chapter or Section of a Research Proposal PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the First Section of a Proposal CHECKLIST: Evaluating Your Proposed Research Project 63 65 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Reappraising a Proposed Research Problem 66 GUIDELINES: Fine-Tuning Your Research Problem 66 For Further Reading 67 Answers to the Conceptual Analysis Exercise “Identifying Independent, Dependent, Mediating, and Moderating Variables” 68 64 USING TECHNOLOGY Chapter 3 Review of the Related Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 Understanding the Role of the Literature Review Strategies for Locating Related Literature 71 Using the Library Catalog 71 70 10 Contents USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY Using Online Databases 74 Consulting with Reference Librarians 76 Surfing the Internet 77 Using Citations and Reference Lists of Those Who Have Gone Before You 78 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning a Literature Search 78 GUIDELINES: Using Your Library Time Efficiently 80 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Evaluating the Research of Others CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Research Article 83 Knowing When to Quit 84 Organizing and Synthesizing the Literature into a Cohesive Review PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing the Literature Review 85 GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear and Cohesive Literature Review A Sample Literature Review 88 For Further Reading 91 83 85 85 Chapter 4 Planning Your Research Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 Planning a General Approach 93 Research Planning Versus Research Methodology The Nature and Role of Data in Research 93 94 Data Are Transient and Ever Changing 94 Primary Data Versus Secondary Data 94 Planning for Data Collection 95 Linking Data and Research Methodology 97 Comparing Quantitative and Qualitative Methodologies 98 Combining Quantitative and Qualitative Designs 100 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Choosing a General Research Approach 100 GUIDELINES: Deciding Whether to Use a Quantitative or Qualitative Approach 101 Considering the Validity of Your Method 103 Internal Validity 103 External Validity 105 Validity in Qualitative Research 106 Identifying Measurement Strategies 106 Defining Measurement 107 Measuring Insubstantial Phenomena: An Example 108 Types of Measurement Scales 110 Nominal Scales 110 Ordinal Scales 111 Interval Scales 111 Ratio Scales 112 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Scales of Measurement 113 Contents 11 USING TECHNOLOGY Validity and Reliability in Measurement 114 Validity of Measurement Instruments 114 Reliability of Measurement Instruments 116 Enhancing the Reliability and Validity of a Measurement Instrument 117 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Problems with Validity and Reliability in Measurement 118 Ethical Issues in Research 120 Protection from Harm 120 Voluntary and Informed Participation 121 Right to Privacy 123 Honesty with Professional Colleagues 123 Internal Review Boards 124 Professional Codes of Ethics 124 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning an Ethical Research Study 125 CHECKLIST: Determining Whether Your Proposed Study Is Ethically Defensible 125 Critically Scrutinizing Your Overall Plan 126 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Judging the Feasibility of a Research Project 126 CHECKLIST: Determining Whether a Proposed Research Project Is Realistic and Practical 126 When You Can’t Anticipate Everything in Advance: The Value of a Pilot Study 128 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Plan of Attack 128 Using Project Management Software and Electronic Planners 130 Keeping an Optimistic and Task-Oriented Outlook 130 For Further Reading 131 Answers to the Conceptual Analysis Exercise “Identifying Scales of Measurement” 132 Answers to the Conceptual Analysis Exercise “Identifying Problems with Validity and Reliability in Measurement” 133 Chapter 5 Writing the Research Proposal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134 Characteristics of a Proposal 135 A Proposal Is a Straightforward Document A Proposal Is Not a Literary Production 135 136 A Proposal Is Clearly Organized 136 Organizing and Writing a Research Proposal 136 Formatting Headings and Subheadings 137 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing Your Proposal 138 GUIDELINES: Writing the First Draft 138 GUIDELINES: Revising Your Proposal 143 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Strengthening Your Proposal 147 CHECKLIST: Evaluating an Early Draft of a Research Proposal 148 12 Contents Final Thoughts About Proposal Writing A Sample Research Proposal 149 For Further Reading 153 148 PART III Quantitative Research Chapter 6 Descriptive Research. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Descriptive Research Designs 154 Observation Studies 154 Correlational Research 155 A Caution about Interpreting Correlational Results 157 Developmental Designs 157 Survey Research 159 Face-to-Face and Telephone Interviews 160 Questionnaires 160 Planning for Data Collection in a Descriptive Study 161 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Checklists, Rating Scales, and Rubrics 161 USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Computerizing Observations 164 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study 165 GUIDELINES: Conducting Interviews in a Quantitative Study 165 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire 166 GUIDELINES: Constructing a Questionnaire 166 GUIDELINES: Using Technology to Facilitate Questionnaire Administration and Data Analysis 170 GUIDELINES: Maximizing Your Return Rate for a Questionnaire 171 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using the Internet to Collect Data for a Descriptive Study 175 Choosing a Sample in a Descriptive Study 176 Sampling Designs 177 Probability Sampling 177 Nonprobability Sampling 182 Sampling in Surveys of Very Large Populations 183 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Identifying a Sufficient Sample Size 184 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Analyzing the Population in a Descriptive Study 185 CHECKLIST: Analyzing Characteristics of the Population Being Studied 185 Common Sources of Bias in Descriptive Studies 186 Sampling Bias 186 Contents 13 Instrumentation Bias 187 Response Bias 188 Researcher Bias 188 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acknowledging the Probable Presence of Bias in Descriptive Research 188 GUIDELINES: Identifying Possible Sampling Bias in Questionnaire Research 189 CHECKLIST: Identifying Potential Sources of Bias in a Descriptive Study 189 Interpreting Data in Descriptive Research 190 Some Final Suggestions 191 A Sample Dissertation 191 For Further Reading 195 Chapter 7 Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196 The Importance of Control 197 Controlling for Confounding Variables 198 Overview of Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, and Ex Post Facto Designs 202 Pre-Experimental Designs 203 Design 1: One-Shot Experimental Case Study Design 2: One-Group Pretest–Posttest Design 203 203 Design 3: Static Group Comparison 204 True Experimental Designs 204 Design 4: Pretest–Posttest Control-Group Design 204 Design 5: Solomon Four-Group Design 205 Design 6: Posttest-Only Control-Group Design 205 Design 7: Within-Subjects Design 206 Quasi-Experimental Designs 207 Design 8: Nonrandomized Control-Group Pretest–Posttest Design 207 Design 9: Simple Time-Series Design 208 Design 10: Control-Group Time-Series Design 208 Design 11: Reversal Time-Series Design 208 Design 12: Alternating-Treatments Design 209 Design 13: Multiple-Baseline Design 209 Using Designs 11, 12, and 13 in Single-Subject Studies 211 Ex Post Facto Designs 212 Design 14: Simple Ex Post Facto Design 213 Factorial Designs 213 Design 15: Two-Factor Experimental Design 213 Design 16: Combined Experimental and Ex Post Facto Design 214 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Quantitative Research Designs 218 14 Contents USING TECHNOLOGY PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Determining Possible Cause-and-Effect Relationships 219 CHECKLIST: Looking for Confounding Variables 219 Meta-Analyses 221 Conducting Experiments on the Internet 221 Testing Your Hypotheses, and Beyond 222 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Acknowledging the Probable Presence of Bias in Experimental Research 222 CHECKLIST: Identifying Potential Sources of Bias and Potential Threats to External Validity in an Experimental, Quasi-Experimental, or Ex Post Facto Study 223 A Sample Dissertation 224 For Further Reading 228 Answers to the Conceptual Analysis Exercise “Identifying Quantitative Research Designs” 228 Chapter 8 Analyzing Quantitative Data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Exploring and Organizing a Data Set 229 Organizing Data to Make Them Easier to Think About and Interpret 231 USING TECHNOLOGYUsing Computer Spreadsheets to Organize and Analyze Data 233 Choosing Appropriate Statistics 235 Functions of Statistics 235 Statistics as Estimates of Population Parameters 236 Considering the Nature of the Data 237 Single-Group Versus Multi-Group Data 237 Continuous Versus Discrete Variables 237 Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and Ratio Data 237 Normal and Non-Normal Distributions 238 Choosing between Parametric and Nonparametric Statistics 240 Descriptive Statistics 241 Measures of Central Tendency 241 Curves Determine Means 242 Measures of Central Tendency as Predictors Measures of Variability: Dispersion and Deviation 244 244 How Great Is the Spread? 245 Using the Mean and Standard Deviation to Calculate Standard Scores 247 Keeping Measures of Central Tendency and Variability in Perspective 249 Measures of Association: Correlation 249 How Validity and Reliability Affect Correlation Coefficients 251 A Reminder About Correlation 252 Inferential Statistics 252 Estimating Population Parameters 252 An Example: Estimating a Population Mean 253 Point Versus Interval Estimates 254 Contents 15 Testing Hypotheses 255 Making Errors in Hypothesis Testing 256 Another Look at Statistical Hypotheses Versus Research Hypotheses Examples of Statistical Techniques for Testing Hypotheses 258 Meta-Analysis 258 USING TECHNOLOGY Using Statistical Software Packages 260 Interpreting the Data 261 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Analyzing and Interpreting Data in a Quantitative Study 263 CHECKLIST: Choosing Statistical Procedures 263 A Sample Dissertation 264 For Further Reading 267 258 PART IV Qualitative Research Chapter 9 Qualitative Research Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269 USING TECHNOLOGY Research Problems and Methodology Choice in Qualitative Research 270 Potential Advantages of a Qualitative Approach 271 Qualitative Research Designs 271 Case Study 271 Ethnography 272 Phenomenological Study 273 Grounded Theory Study 274 Content Analysis 275 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Choosing a Qualitative Research Design 277 Collecting Data in Qualitative Research 277 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Addressing Validity and Reliability Issues in Qualitative Data Collection 278 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Selecting an Appropriate Sample for a Qualitative Study 279 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Making Observations in a Qualitative Study 280 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning and Conducting Interviews in a Qualitative Study 281 GUIDELINES: Conducting a Productive Interview 282 An Example in International Relations 286 Using Technology to Facilitate Collection of Interview Data 287 Criteria for Evaluating Qualitative Research 287 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning the Logistics of a Qualitative Study CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Methodology of a Qualitative Study 288 289 16 Contents A Sample Dissertation 290 For Further Reading 294 Answers to the Conceptual Analysis Exercise “Choosing a Qualitative Research Design” 295 Chapter 10 Historical Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296 USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY USING TECHNOLOGY Data Sources in Historical Research 296 Collecting Historical Records 300 Online Databases for Historical Events 300 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Handling Historical Data Systematically 301 Evaluating and Interpreting Historical Data 301 External Evidence 301 Internal Evidence 301 Psychological or Conceptual Historical Research 303 Searching for Roots 303 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Historical Research Writing GUIDELINES: Writing the Historical Research Report A Sample Dissertation 304 For Further Reading 308 303 303 USING TECHNOLOGY Chapter 11 Analyzing Qualitative Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309 Qualitative Analysis Strategies 310 General Strategies for Organizing and Analyzing Qualitative Data 310 Creswell’s Data Analysis Spiral 315 An Example: Data Analysis in a Grounded Theory Study An Example: Data Analysis in a Content Analysis Study 315 317 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Computer Databases to Facilitate Data Organization and Analysis 318 Acknowledging the Role of Researcher-as-Instrument in Qualitative Research 319 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Planning Data Analysis for a Qualitative Study 320 CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Data Analysis in a Qualitative Study 320 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Observing How Experienced Researchers Have Conducted Qualitative Research 322 CHECKLIST: Evaluating a Qualitative Study 322 A Sample Dissertation 323 For Further Reading 328 Contents 17 PART V Mixed-Methods Research Chapter 12 Mixed-Methods Designs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329 When Mixed-Methods Designs Are Most Useful and Appropriate 330 Common Mixed-Methods Designs 330 Convergent Designs 331 Embedded Designs 331 Exploratory Designs 331 Explanatory Designs 331 Multiphase Iterative Designs 331 Common Symbolic Notations for Mixed-Methods Designs 332 CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS EXERCISE: Identifying Mixed-Methods Research Designs 333 Planning a Mixed-Methods Study 334 Identifying Research Questions and Hypotheses 334 Conducting the Literature Review 335 Choosing One or More Appropriate Samples 335 Addressing Validity Concerns 336 Special Ethical Considerations in Mixed-Methods Research Analyzing and Interpreting Mixed-Methods Data 337 337 USING TECHNOLOGY PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Using Computer Software to Facilitate Mixed- Methods Data Analysis 339 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Deciding Whether to Use a Mixed-Methods Design 339 CHECKLIST: Pinning Down the Logistics and Feasibility of a Mixed-Methods Study 339 Systematic Reviews of Qualitative and Mixed-Methods Studies 340 A Sample Dissertation 342 For Further Reading 346 Answers to the Conceptual Analysis Exercise “Identifying Mixed-Methods Research Designs” 346 PART VI Research Reports Chapter 13 USING TECHNOLOGY Planning and Preparing a Final Research Report . . . . . . . 347 Getting Started 347 Surfing the Internet for Writing Assistance 348 Learn by Looking 348 Essential Elements of a Research Report 349 Explanation of the Research Problem 349 Description of Methods 350 Description of the Data and Data Analyses 350 18 Contents USING TECHNOLOGY Interpretation of the Data 351 Identification of Possible Weaknesses of the Study Summary and Connections to a Broader Context 353 353 Maintaining Your Academic Integrity 353 Front Matter and End Matter 354 Preliminary Pages 354 Endnotes and Footnotes 355 Reference List 355 Appendix Content 358 Organizing a Research Report 358 Writing—and Finishing!—A Report 360 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Writing Your Final Report 360 GUIDELINES: Writing a Clear, Coherent Report 361 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Developing a Writing Schedule 362 GUIDELINES: Pinning Down and Adhering to a Workable Schedule PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Critiquing a Final Research Report 364 CHECKLIST: Criteria for Critiquing a Research Report 364 Beyond the Unpublished Research Report: Presenting and Publishing Conference Presentations 366 PRACTICAL APPLICATION: Presenting Your Research at a Professional Conference 367 GUIDELINES: Presenting an Effective Paper or Poster 367 Journal Articles 368 Sharing Authorship 369 Responding to Reviewers’ Critiques 369 A Closing Thought 370 For Further Reading 370 363 366 APPENDICES Appendix A Using a Spreadsheet: Microsoft Excel 372 USING TECHNOLOGY Using Excel to Keep Track of Literature Resources 372 Using Excel to Record and Recode Data 374 Reorganizing Data in Excel 377 Using Excel to Perform Simple Statistical Analyses 377 Appendix B Using SPSS 379 USING TECHNOLOGY Creating a Data Set 379 Computing Basic Descriptive Statistics 381 Computing Inferential Statistics 382 Glossary 385 References 391 Index 396